CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background
Every
living things on earth is consists of many components
of which it is composed. One of
the living things are animals.
Animal body is composed of organs that make up the organ systems, and
organ systems work
together to form a complete individual. The
system consists of the organs of the respiratory system, digestive, excretion and
reproduction. With the existence of these organs, individuals can have a daily activities.
Animals are
divided into two categories,
there are invertebrates and
vertebrates. Vertebrate animals are animals with a backbone. Vertebrates are divided into five categories, there are aves, reptile, amphibian,
pisces, and mammals. One of the animals included
in the class of vertebrate
is a frog, which is
the object of observation in the
experiment this time. By looking
at the anatomy of the frog, we expected
to see an
overview of anatomical structures in vertebrate animals. In general, we can observe the animals
through the structure of the
surface. Meanwhile, to observe
the organs in it, we need to do surgery.
Frogs in the
Amphibians class. Amphibians are came
from two words amphi meaning two or dual, and bios which means life. Frogs live two lives, first in
water and then live on land.
Frogs have two
breathing organs, that is the lungs when
they are on land, and use the skin when in the
water. The frog skin is semi-permeable
to air and water. The existence of these two
breathing organs due to environmental factors.
In this experiment we
use paddy frog (Rana cancanivora), were observed at this time is a system of breathing (respiration), expenditure system (excretion),
and the reproductive system in this urgonetraka is to distinguish between the male and female frogs. These
observations may provide knowledge to the students about
the shape, color and location of the body's organs
in vertebrates.
Therefore, by doing this experiment practitioner is expected to know what are the
organs that make up the body of the frog and as a comparison to determine the structure
of the vertebrate animals.
B.
Purpose
Student can recognize shapes,
colors, and layout of the organ and its relationship with other organs in an
organ system.
C.
Benefit
1.
Students can know and recognize the anatomy of frog/
vertebrate.
2.
Students can recognize the organ which formed up the
system organ, and can explain the function of organs.
CHAPTER II
PREVIEW
OF LITERATURE
Animal body consist of
various organs.the organs that work together to perform the function of a
higher form organ systems. In this lab will be observed anatomical arrangement
paddy frog (Rana cancanivora). Frog
anatomy can provide an overview of the major organs in vertebrate animals.
Anatomy of an animal observations needed surgery to facilitate observing the
shape, position and relationship with other organs. That would be observed in
this lab is the digestive system, circulatory, respiratory, excrectory and
reproductive (Hamka, 2012: 24).
There are 3000 species
of amphibian which life in earth, that divided in three group, are Anura (frogs and toads). Urodela caudate (salamanders) and gymnophiona or apoda (caecilians).
There are only about 60 species
of caecilians and about 200 species of salamander, so most of the nation's amphibian consists of frogs
and toads. Terminology
"Amphibia" applied to any
member of this class because most
animals spend early stage life cycle in the water, out of shape in the form of tadpole larvae that breathe with
outside gills then the larvae undergo metamorphosis into frogs child with respiratory form to adult lung and breathing through kulit, because the skin is always wet and glandular. Amphibians are vertebrate groups are present the
first time live at the land. Basicly, they have pentadactyl (five tip toes), although the
number of legs can be reduced. Such as fish and reptiles, the amphibians are ektoterm or a change in body temperature was temperature dependent. In most amphibians leave their eggs in the pool and water streams and none not
be walking
on the ground so they hatch, few species that live far away from
water (Sukiya, 2003: 33).
Frogs are a
diverse and largely
carnivorous group of short-bodied, tailless
amphibians
composing the
order Anura
(
Ancient
Greek an-, without +
oura, tail). The
oldest
fossil "proto-frog" appeared in the
early
Triassic of Madagascar, but
molecular
clock dating suggests their origins may extend further back to the
Permian, 265
million years ago. Frogs are widely distributed, ranging from the
tropics to
subarctic
regions, but the greatest concentration of
species
diversity is found in
tropical rainforests. There are approximately
4,800 recorded species, making them among the most diverse
vertebrate
groups (Anonymous, 2012).
The
body plan of an adult frog is generally characterized by
a stout body, protruding
eyes,
cleft
tongue,
limbs folded underneath and the absence of a
tail. Besides living in
fresh water and on dry land, the adults of some species are adapted for living
underground or in trees. The skin of the frog is
glandular, with
secretions ranging from distasteful to toxic. Warty species of frog tend to be
called
toads. Frog
warts are elevations in the skin where
glandular
toxins tend to concentrate. The distinction between frogs and toads is
based on informal naming conventions concentrating on the warts rather than
taxonomy or
evolutionary history; some toads are more closely related to frogs than other
toads. Frogs' skins vary in colour from well-
camouflaged
dappled brown, grey and green to vivid patterns of bright red or yellow and
black to advertise toxicity and
warn off
predators(Anonymous, 2012).
Frogs typically lay their
eggs
in water. The eggs hatch into aquatic
larvae, called
tadpoles, that
have tails and internal
gills.
They have highly specialized rasping mouth parts suitable for
herbivorous,
omnivorous or
planktivorous
diets. The
life cycle is completed when they
metamorphose
into adults. A few species deposit eggs on land or bypass the tadpole stage.
Adult frogs generally have a carnivorous diet consisting of small
invertebrates, but omnivorous species exist and a few feed on fruit. Frogs are
extremely efficient at converting what they eat into body mass, which makes
them an important food source for
predators.
Frogs are a
keystone group in the
food web
dynamics of many of the world's
ecosystems. The skin is
semi-permeable,
making frogs susceptible to dehydration, so they either live in moist places or
have special adaptations to deal with dry habitats. Frogs produce a wide range
of
vocalizations, particularly in their
breeding
season, and exhibit many different kinds of complex
behaviours to
attract mates, to fend off predators and to generally survive (Anonymous, 2012).
Frogs have no tail,
except as larvae, and most have long hind legs, elongated ankle bones, webbed
toes, no claws, large eyes and a smooth or warty skin. They have a short
vertebral column, with no more than ten free vertebrae and a fused tailbone
(urostyle or coccyx). Like other amphibians, oxygen
can pass through their highly permeable skins. This unique feature allows them
to remain in places without access to the air, respiring through their skins.
The ribs are poorly developed so the lungs are filled by buccal
pumping and it has been shown that a frog deprived of its
lungs can maintain its body functions without them. For the skin to serve as a
respiratory organ, it must remain moist. This makes frogs susceptible to
various substances they may encounter in the environment, some of which may be
toxic and can dissolve in the water film and be passed into their bloodstream.
This may be one of the causes of the worldwide decline in frog
populations (Anonymous, 2012).
The structure of the
feet and legs varies greatly among frog species, depending in part on whether
they live primarily on the ground, in water, in trees or in burrows. Frogs must
be able to move quickly through their environment to catch prey and escape
predators, and numerous adaptations help them to do so. Most frogs are either
proficient at jumping or are descended from ancestors who were, with much of
the musculo-skeletal
morphology
modified for this purpose. The tibia, fibula and tarsals
have been fused into a single, strong bone,
as have the radius and ulna in the forelimbs
(which must absorb the impact on landing). The metatarsals
have become elongated to add to the leg
length and allow the frog to push against the ground for a longer period on
take-off. The illium
has elongated and formed a mobile joint with the sacrum
which, in specialist jumpers such as ranids and hylids, functions as an
additional limb joint to further power the leaps. The tail vertebrae have fused
into a urostyle which is retracted inside the pelvis. This enables the force to
be transferred from the legs to the body during a leap (Anonymous, 2012).
A frog's skin is
protective, has a respiratory function, can absorb water and helps control body
temperature. It has many glands, particularly on the head and back, which often
exude distasteful and toxic substances. The secretion is often sticky and helps
keep the skin moist, protects against the entry of moulds and bacteria and make
the animal slippery and more able to escape from predators. The skin is shed
every few weeks. It usually splits down the middle of the back and across the
belly, and the frog pulls its arms and legs free. The sloughed skin is then
worked towards the head where it is quickly eaten (Anonymous, 2012).
Respiration
and circulation. The
skin of a frog is permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide, as well as to water. There are a number of blood vessels
near the surface of the skin and when a frog is underwater, oxygen diffuses
directly into the blood. When not submerged, a frog breathes by a process known
as buccal pumping. Its lungs are similar to those of
humans but the chest muscles are not involved in respiration, and there are no ribs or diaphragm to help move air in and out.
Instead, it puffs out its throat and draws air in through the nostrils, which
in many species can then be closed by valves. When the floor of the mouth is
compressed, air is forced into the lungs. The Borneo flat-headed
frog (Barbourula kalimantanensis)
was first discovered in a remote part of Indonesia in 2007. It is entirely
aquatic and is the first species of frog known to science that has no lungs (Anonymous,
2012).
Frogs have three-chambered hearts, a feature they share with lizards. Oxygenated blood from the lungs
and de-oxygenated blood from the respiring tissues enter the heart through
separate atria. When these chambers contract, the
two blood streams pass into a common ventricle before being pumped via a spiral
valve to the appropriate vessel, the aorta for oxygenated blood and pulmonary artery for deoxygenated blood. The ventricle is partially divided
into narrow cavities which minimizes the mixing of the two types of blood.
These features enable frogs to have a higher metabolic rate and be more active
than would otherwise be possible (Anonymous, 2012).
Some species of frog have adaptations that allow them to
survive in oxygen deficient water. The Lake Titicaca frog (Telmatobius culeus) is one such species and
has wrinkly skin that increases its surface area to enhance gas exchange. It
normally makes no use of its rudimentary lungs but will sometimes raise and
lower its body rhythmically while on the lake bed to increase the flow of water
around it (Anonymous, 2012).
Digestion and
excretion. Frogs have maxillary teeth along
their upper jaw which are used to hold food before it is swallowed. These teeth
are very weak, and cannot be used to chew or catch and harm agile prey.
Instead, the frog uses its sticky, cleft tongue to catch flies and other small
moving prey. The tongue normally lies coiled in the mouth, free at the back and
attached to the mandible at the front. It can be shot out and retracted at
great speed.[39] Some frogs have no tongue and
just stuff food into their mouths with their hands.[39] The eyes assist in the
swallowing of food as they can be retracted through holes in the skull and help
push food down the throat.[39] The food then moves through the
oesophagus into the stomach where digestive enzymes are added and it is churned
up. It then proceeds to the small intestine (duodenum and ileum) where most
digestion occurs. Pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and bile, produced by the
liver and stored in the gallbladder, are secreted into the small intestine,
where the fluids digest the food and the nutrients are absorbed. The food
residue passes into the large intestine where excess water is removed and the
wastes are passed out through the cloaca (Anonymous, 2012).
CHAPTER
III
OBSERVATION
METHOD
A. Time and place
Day
/ Date : Wednesday/ November
14th , 2012
Time : At 09.10 am until 10.50 am.
Place : Biology Laboratory 3rd floor
east side, Mathematics and
Science Faculty State University of Makassar.
B. Tools and Materials
1. Tools
:
a. Bottle
killer
b. Surgical
tray
c. Surgical
Tools:
1) Scissor
2) Tweezers
3) Needle
4) Scalpel
5) Picture
books and pencils
2. Materials
:
a. Frog
fields (Rana cancarivora)
b. Cotton
c. Chloroform/
ether
C. Work Procedure
1. Foreign
Frog
a. Deadly
Frog
1) Took
a piece of cotton ( for segment master fingers), wet it by chloroform, and put
into it and the frog into the bottle killer. Covered the
bottle killer and let the frog was unconsciousness.
2) Removed
the frog and placed it on the surgery tray, and covered the bottle and the cotton
again.
3) Observed
the outside of the frog.
a) The
eyes, eyelids, and the mucous of the ear.
b) External
nostrils
c) Tympanum,
the lining of the ear.
d) Cracks
mounth
e) Forelimb
1. Upper
arm ( Branchium)
2. Fore
arm ( Ante brancium)
3. The
soles (Manus)
4. Finger-teak
f) Rear
legs
1. Thigh
(femur)
2.
Calves (crus)
3.
The soles are united (pes)
4. Webbed
fingers pool
g) Cloaca
(specify of the location)
h) Touch
the surface of the skin and the skin’s color.
4)
Drew the frog and
mention all of the body’s part of it.
2. Surgery
a. Put
the frog on the surgery tray and the ventral of frog was face the apreantice. Nailed all of the fingers of frog used needle on the wax.
b. Used
the tweezers, pinch the skin of the abdomen near the thigh lengthwise, lift
slightly, cut across the skin under tweezers, thus forming a gap in the skin of
the abdomen.
c. Through
the slit skin, insert the blunt and
then, cut the skin used scissor toward the head until crushed. Flipped to the
last gap, scissors toward the base of the thighs.
d. Leather
scissors to the left and right side of the abdomen so that the skin could be
revealed. Check the attachment of the skin to the muscle tissue. Only at the
certain place in the muscle attached to
the skin, formed a kind of pouch (saccus).
e. Wrote
the center of the stomach muscle . viewed longitudinal white stripe along the
abdominal muscle ( called the linea alba).
f. Pinch
twezeers abdominal muscle in beside linea alba, and cut crosswise, formed a
gap. Insert the tip of blunt scissors
into the gap and began to cut the abdominal muscle toward your head to the
bottom of the jaw. Continue to cut the groin.
g. Unleash
the abdominal muscle tissue to the left and right so that the abdominal cavity
opened innards.
3. Observations
of Digestive system
a. Opened
the mouth of frog used the tweezers. Observed the shape
of the teeth, touched with a finger on the upper jaw and teeth vomer the
ceiling.
b. Used
the tweezers and pull his tougue out, observed the form and it is attachments.
c. Ontinue
to observed of the abdominal cavity countained viscera. Observed the shape and
color:
1) Hearts
right, how many lobes; found the gall
bladder, and observed the the color.
2) Hull
on the left heart; lift a little will look the duodenum and pancreas.
3) Traced
continues until the rectal intestine. Notice of meetings.
4) Rectum
that turns into the cloaca.
4. Observations
of Circulatory system
a. Toward
the head of the liver, the heart apprease in the film.
b. Plugged
membrane wrapped the heart with a needle or scaple end up broke, observed the
shapes and section.
1) Chambers
(ventricles)
2) Porch
(Atrium) left and right
3) The
main arteries (Truncus arterious) emanating
from the ventricles and then branched into two aorta ( left and right).
4) Drew
the heart and mention the name of the parts.
5. Observations
of Respiration System
a. Noticed
the left and right liver and left gastric, lung protruded parts.
b. Observed how the lung when the frog took a breath.
c. Removed
the heart used scissors to look windpipe.
d. Drew
the respiration system of frog.
6. Observations
of System Excretion and reproduction ( Urogenitalia)
a. Removed
the digestive organs from the stomach to the rectum and the mesentery (
connective tissue) that hold it.
b. Looked
the pair of kidneys rounded oval attached to the back of the abdominal cavity.
Further observed:
1) Kidney
and adrenal gland (white line)..
2) Body
fat (corpus adiposum) yellow fringed.
3) Renal
tract (ureter) leaded from the kidney to the bladder.
c. Male
frog, the ureter was also called Dustus urospermaticus. Testis was located next to the kidneys, less rounded associated
with kidney through the Vasa efferensia.
d. Female
frog, there was a pair of ovaries. Raised a little
ovaries, would appear oviduct as white winding channel, boiled down to being
the end the from of a funnel cloaca (ostium)
was near from the heart.
e. Drew
the Urogenitalia of frog and mention the name of the
part.
CHAPTER IV
OBSERVATION
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
A.
Discussion
Base on the observation,
we obtained the result of morphology of frog (Ranacancanivora) are divided by digestive system, respiratory
system, circulatory system, and urogenitalia system.
1. Digestive
system
The digestive system started from
cavumoris and ended in rectum. Mucous gland much found in mouth, especially on
tongue which used to catch prey. The tongue have sticky texture, branch and can
stretched out (protrusible tongue). From mouth, digestive continue to
esophagus, gastric, smooth intestinal, colon and cloaca. The digestive gland
areheparand pancreatium that gave the secretion at intestinum.
2. Respiratory
system
In the
frog respiratory system
consists of the skin
and lungs. In the skin has a wet surface
and a layer of epithelium
that has many blood vessels. Meanwhile, breathing with
the lungs through the cavum oris, pharynx and
larynx before going into the lungs. The lungs consist
of two elastic pockets
are layered to form alviola. Each pocket
lung associated with short bronchial.
3. Circulatory
system
Circulatory
system consists of two is the heart
and blood vessels. Frog heart consists of three
chambers, namely a ventrikum, right atrium and left atrium.
Blood containing oxygen into the left
atrium through the vena pulmonary
into the left ventricle.
While the blood containing carbon dioxide into the
right atrium via the sinus
venosus into the
right ventricle and then pumped to the
lungs.
4. Urogenitalia
system
The system is a
combination system, because it consists of excretion and reproduction system incorporated in the cloaca. System excretion in the
frog consists of kidney then excretion results
brought to ureters into the urinary
gallbladder as temporary storage before being discharged into the cloaca
and excreted from the body.
In
female frogs, reproductive
organs consist of a pair of
ovarium, ostium, ostium
tuba, oviduct, and
uterus. A pair of ovaries are producing
ovum, mature egg
from the ovaries will come out with the aid of cilia that surrounds the
tube ostium. Furthermore ovum into the cloaca
and released for
external fertilization. Furthermore ovum into the cloaca
and released for
external fertilization. In the male reproductive organs consist of a pair of testes
located next arterior kidney and directly related to the mesonephric tubules into
the cloaca. End of an enlarged ureter and
seminal vesicular called, as a temporary
shelter spermatozoa.
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
AND SUGGESTION
A.
Conclusion
Based on the observation result,
can concluded the anatomy of frof consist of many organs and each organ have
different form, shape, and function. All organs is very important and have
relationship with other organs to formed up system organs. The system organs
which existed in frog body is respiratory system, digestive system, circulatory
system, and urogenitalia system.
B.
Suggestion
1. Laboratory
Have to complete the tools for observation, se the
apprentice can conduct the observation well.
2. Assistant
Have to accompany the apprentice, to guide and give
information about the observation object and how to use the observation tools.
3. Apprentice
Must be carefully when conduct the surgery, to avoid
the mistake. Such as; accidentally cut the blood vessel of observation object.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hamka. 2012. Guide Book of Basic Biology. Makassar:
Biology Department Mathematic and Science Faculty State University of Makassar.
Sukiya. 2003. Biologi Vertebrata. Yogyakarta: Biology
Department Mathematic and Science Faculty State University of Yogyakarta
